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SPA Documentación |
contents
Introduction - An essential subject | Information competence as part of translation competence | The information literacy approach | Research potential
Introduction - An essential subject
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Documentation is an information science of a social nature that serves as a mediator between the creator of the information and its receiver. |
| José López Yepes (2004: 454) |
Information Science is an interdisciplinary subject whose object of study is the process of information. It can be applied to any field or area of scientific knowledge and takes on a specialised character when it focuses its objectives on specific disciplines:
The mere study of the conceptual dimensions of the documentation process has no operative value; only the application of criteria of specificity of a particular discipline or of application to work in society, if appropriate, gives our discipline a clear value.
(López 1995: 316-317)
The aim of information science is none other than to make the required information accessible by organising, identifying, selecting, analysing and evaluating the appropriate sources of information. In this way, information literacy for translation and interpreting involves applying the knowledge and techniques of information science to scientific and practical information needs that arise when translating and interpreting.
The importance of training in information literacy in the field of translation and interpreting is obvious, as recognised in the curricula. Thus, in Spain, information literacy for translation and interpreting emerged as a discipline in the early 1990s, when it was introduced as a core subject in the first cycle of the pre-EHEA Degree in Translation and Interpreting, offered by several Spanish universities as of the academic year 1991-1992. It is also a compulsory subject in the current bachelor's degrees. In her illustrative monograph on the didactics of translation, Kelly (2005) observed that practically all the pedagogical proposals for translator training in the international sphere assume the relevance of information science (Kelly calls it documentary research for translation) and included it as part of the essential training curriculum in our field.
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Since 2007 (Pinto & Sales 2007, 2008a, 2008b; Sales 2008; Massey & Ehrensberger-Dow 2011; Sales & Pinto 2011; Olalla-Soler 2018; Sales, Pinto & Fernández-Ramos 2018) there has been talk of information competence for translators or information literacy for translators. In fact, nowadays, information literacy for translators and interpreters, information literacy skills, information skills, information competence or documentary competence, amongst other names, appear as compulsory components in countless bachelor's, master's and doctoral programmes in translation and interpreting studies around the world.
Carrying out documentary research prior to translating does not merely mean searching for, retrieving or using information. It also means being aware of the flexibility and diversity of documentary requirements according to the jobs and the circumstances to be addressed when translating. The training of translators and interpreters in information literacy is one of the keys to the interlinguistic and intercultural mediation of information that all translation entails, bearing in mind that "Translators are not only information users, but also information processors and producers” (Pinto & Sales 2007: 532).
In the field of translation, information is multilingual and culturally specific in nature, from various fields of knowledge, depending on the text or discourse. In other words, information needs are not only linguistic but also extralinguistic, which means they can be cultural knowledge, encyclopaedic knowledge or knowledge related to the field of specialisation. Documentary activity is therefore a fundamental link in the chain of mediation and knowledge transfer and an indispensable part of translator know-how. Hurtado (2001, 2017) stated that translating is mediation between languages and cultures, and involves a constant process of decision-making and problem-solving. For this reason, it requires a rigorous and always critical process of documentation. Decision-making must always be based on contrasted and appropriate information.
The acquisition of knowledge, skills and values in information management is essential for the professional translator. A realistic and contextualised view of information literacy for translation and interpreting, while at the same time being open and critical, is based both on current needs and on the awareness of the permanent mutability of the information society. Moreover, the changing nature of the professional reality in translation and interpreting underlines the fact that information science provides a solid foundation and a flexible and critical working methodology to responsibly address challenges and constant developments. It is a matter of understanding the importance of acquiring solid information science skills that make it possible to continue learning as required by the work or research context. This, of course, only enhances the subject of information literacy and emphasises its value as a basis for learning throughout the professional's training and career.
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Information competence as part of translation competence
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[...] rethink information science, which can no longer be defined as the means to guarantee solutions but, at most, as an aid that facilitates, but never excuses, decision-making, which will either precede the documentation stage, will already be necessary during the process or will have to be adapted once this phase has been completed. |
| María Rosario Martín Ruano (2005: 80) |
The PACTE group, led by Amparo Hurtado Albir at the Universitat Autónoma de Barcelona, has been working for years on the process of acquiring translation competence and its evaluation. Since the group’s foundational work in this field (Hurtado 1999; Hurtado 2001: 375-408), it has always stressed the relevance of training in documentation as part of translation competence.
As summarised by Olalla-Soler (2018: 1295-1296), practically all models of translation competence include training in information science: “Nord (1988) research competence, Hurtado (1996) professional competence, Kelly (2002) professional instrumental sub-competence, Shreve (2006) knowledge of translation, Alves & Gonçalves (2007) instrumental sub-competence, Katan (2008) professional/instrumental competence, EMT (2009) information mining competence and technological competence, Göpferich (2009) tools and research competence”. Also from the didactic point of view, Vienne (2000) considered that “resource research” is of vital importance within the framework of translation competence. Pym (2003) expressed himself in similar terms, stressing the importance of training the ability to consult sources and, above all, the need to evaluate them critically in the digital age. Although these proposals were defined above all for translation, they also apply generically to interpreting, where the preparation of documentation is primarily an anticipatory and proactive process. The interpreter acquires the necessary knowledge before starting work, in the preparation phase, by carrying out an effective and specific gathering of information as part of the pre-processing skills (Albl-Mikasa 2013); examples of such preliminary work include preparing glossaries and other quick reference material that can be called upon in the course of the intervention (Kalina 2015).
As Hurtado (2001: 382) explained, there are several definitions that concentrate the meaning of translation competence. PACTE proposes a holistic, integral model for translation competence (TC) and its acquisition in translation. Translation competence, knowing how to translate, implies a "basically operational knowledge" (Hurtado 2001: 394), and is made up of a set of sub-competences that are interwoven with each other. Briefly: "PACTE considers TC to be the underlying system of knowledge, skills and attitudes needed to translate; according to PACTE, TC is made up of five sub-competences (bilingual, extralinguistic, translation knowledge, instrumental and strategic) as well as psychophysiological components” (Hurtado et al. 2019: 6). PACTE (2017) has concluded that the instrumental, strategic and translation knowledge sub-competences are those specific to translation competence, while the bilingual and extralinguistic sub-competences are shared with bilinguals who are not translators.
The model of translation competence that the PACTE group has been working on and revising for years is the only one that has been empirically validated, and it includes what authors such as Gonzalo (2004), Palomares (2004), Sales (2006a) and Pinto and Sales (2008b) call information competence as an essential part of the instrumental sub-competence within the framework of translation competence.
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The subject of Information Literacy for Translation and Interpreting, focusing on information competence, is directly related to the instrumental and professional sub-competence (translation knowledge) outlined by PACTE. Documentary research (planning the search for information, knowing how to select it, etc.) is also included in the strategic sub-competence, while in the extralinguistic sub-competence information competence is essential. The strategic sub-competence is responsible for planning the translation process, for activating the different sub-competences to compensate for deficiencies, and for identifying translation problems and applying procedures to solve them. Thus, for example, when a deficiency is detected in the bilingual or extralinguistic sub-competences when solving a translation problem, the strategic sub-competence activates (as part of the translator's cognitive process) the instrumental sub-competence to deploy information search skills and solve it. This would be the theoretical description of how the model of translation competence works, but it should be noted that in PACTE's empirical-experimental research on translation competence and its acquisition, the activation of strategic sub-competence has not been observed, but rather it has been seen that the instrumental sub-competence has been used strategically, more or less consciously, in order to solve linguistic and extralinguistic problems (PACTE 2017).
In any case, the model of translation competence proposed by PACTE is dynamic and highlights the interrelation and mutual feedback of all the sub-competences, as they interact when solving needs and problems in the translation process. It is, in short, a holistic and dynamic proposal, in which all the sub-competences are necessary and interact to make up translation competence, and which highlights the relevance of information competence as part of different sub-competences.
Despite the importance given to information competence in translation competence models, only one specific model has been proposed to date: the ALFINTRA or INFOLITRANS model (Pinto & Sales 2008b), from the information literacy approach. In short, this model indicates that if the translator has documentary/information competence, according to the specific needs of each job, he/she should be able to:
- understand the communicative process of translation and social interaction with the professional environment;
- understand information flows in society, between people, organisations and countries;
- determine the scope of information needed at any given time;
- implement information processing techniques to access information more effectively and efficiently;
- acquire organisational skills to optimise the workplace and incorporate selected information into his/her own knowledge base;
- evaluate information and its sources in a critical and thoughtful manner;
- acquire information retrieval skills based on a competent use of information and communication technologies, in order to explore all the facets that documentary cyberspace offers for translation;
- learn skills to generate standardised databases and data-banks that can be reused in knowledge creation, even at a basic level and for one's own use;
- acquire strategic skills based on knowledge of the organisation, company or person commissioning the translation and the analysis of their needs, habits and information consumption; and
- use information ethically and legally as a tool for problem-solving and decision-making.
In short, information competence plays an essential role in translator and interpreter training and must be constantly updated in professional translation practice. Translation is not – and cannot be – a mechanical or neutral activity but instead an act surrounded by decisions of an ethical nature and social and political implications, which requires responsible information competence. Information Literacy for Translation and Interpreting cannot therefore be restricted to equipping us with merely instrumental or operational knowledge – which is certainly relevant – but must foster flexibility and critical thinking in order to weigh up different options and treat each informational act with a critical and rigorous conscience. It should be emphasised that information competence has a central ethical component in that the responsible use of information is essential to any professional praxis that engages in the transfer of information. Hence, among other aspects, the importance of seeking information from a wide range of sources, contrasting information to ensure its veracity, and knowing the rights of all intellectual property in order to give credit for sources appropriately when necessary. Information competence, in short, makes possible, encourages and sustains a translator who is self-aware and capable of reflection, that is, it provides what is fundamentally a strategic capacity and an ethical attitude towards the necessary information, supported by information and communication technologies. It should therefore be approached from the perspective of information literacy.
The information literacy approach
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If you can’t translate with pencil and paper, then you can’t translate with the latest information technology. Let’s look at one example: research. Research, like all the abilities required of a translator, has been computerized, but it has certainly not been automated. All the research abilities that were needed in the days of libraries with hard catalogues are still needed to search the Internet. [...] Intelligence is still required to select keywords for searching, and to assess the documents at the Web sites identified by the search engine. The procedure for writing in the key words for a Boolean search is simple and requires little thought or intelligence to learn; it can be acquired in half an hour. What cannot be learned in half an hour, or even half a year, is deciding which words to enter, and how to assess the results. |
| Brian Mossop (2003: 20-21) |
Information literacy is one of the pillars of lifelong learning. It is necessary for all disciplines, all learning environments and all levels of education. It promotes the empowerment of citizens and the critical strengthening of learning processes. The information society and its contexts are constantly changing, and information literacy is thus a field that is constantly evolving. Since Zurkowski (1974) coined the term information literacy in the academic context in the 1970s, it has been enriched by reflections and didactic proposals all over the world. Today, it is worth highlighting the definition proposed by CILIP (2018), which is inclusive and clarifying:
Information literacy is the ability to think critically and make balanced judgements about any information we find and use. It empowers us as citizens to reach and express informed views and to engage fully with society. [...] Information literacy incorporates a set of skills and abilities which everyone needs to undertake information-related tasks; for instance, how to discover, access, interpret, analyse, manage, create, communicate, store and share information. But it is much more than that: it concerns the application of the competencies, attributes and confidence needed to make the best use of information and to interpret it judiciously. It incorporates critical thinking and awareness, and an understanding of both the ethical and political issues associated with using information. Information literacy relates to information in all its forms: not just print, but also digital content, data, images and the spoken word. Information literacy is associated and overlaps with other literacies, including specifically digital literacy, academic literacy and media literacy. It is not a stand-alone concept, and is aligned with other areas of knowledge and understanding.
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The holistic goal to be achieved through information literacy is to foster constructive thinking, to question oneself and find informed answers, to manage information in a broad sense, and to locate, access, analyse, evaluate, use, synthesise, store, create and share information in a responsible manner. Thus, information literacy always goes beyond instrumental technological literacy and is therefore essential for translation, in that it is fundamentally about deploying the critical ability to evaluate and reflexively use information for decision-making or problem-solving in context (Austermühl 2001, Mossop 2003, Martín 2005, Torres 2005). Today, the pre-eminence of things digital has increased the number of resources available for translation. The Internet is an indispensable tool, making the process of searching for information more efficient (using Boolean operators and advanced search options, consulting specialised databases, allowing connectivity and ubiquity to speed up processes, etc.). But it is extremely important to remain alert to infoxication, even the infodemic, and for this reason it is essential to know the ins and outs of searching for information on the Internet, to understand that it is not infallible and that it is determined by algorithms that produce bubble filters, that there are non-electronic sources, that ethics and critical validation in the management of information are vital in all activities, both educational and professional, and that everything requires constant updating to keep us alert and up to date with the constant advances and changes in the information society.
In order to translate, we use a wide range of formal and non-formal resources such as dictionaries, encyclopaedias, glossaries, parallel texts, contacts with professionals, L1 speakers and experts in the fields or subjects of the texts or discourses to be translated or interpreted, among other possibilities that we activate cognitively from the instrumental and translation knowledge sub-competences (Sales 2004, 2006a; Pinto & Sales 2008a; White, Matteson & Abels 2008). Obviously, knowing specialised sources of information, systematising the bibliography and managing search strategies are aspects of great interest to those of us who translate or interpret. In today's information ecosystem, resources are constantly being updated and advanced. However, documentation is not a mechanical issue. Once we have obtained the information (usually decontextualised), we need to apply strategic and critical thinking skills and evaluate the sources. Only then do we have quality information for our decisions and for the constant problem-solving process often manifested in translation. Research, therefore, is not about looking for "a solution" – much less "the solution" – but about understanding and rigorously contrasting the range of solutions, in order to choose the right ones for the text, the assignment and the context in which each translation is framed (Martín 2005).
In short, to document oneself in order to translate is to document oneself critically; reflection is essential, as it broadens the perspective, enhances the capacity to doubt in order to contrast and assume the underlying responsibility in each and every act of translation. The information literacy approach therefore focuses on critical thinking about information.
The research potential of Information Literacy for Translation and Interpreting is enormous, varied and open to the permanent movement and advances that take place in the very profession of translation and in the information society that surrounds us and of which, in different ways, we are a part.
Several lines of work could be highlighted. On the one hand, it is important to continue to make progress in carrying out descriptive empirical studies (whether cross-sectional – at a specific moment in time – or longitudinal – over a period of time) on information behaviour, both of those who are being trained (undergraduate and/or master's or doctoral students) and of the professional group, in order to analyse the processes and for the research to lead to improvements in general or specific training programmes (Pinto & Sales 2007, 2008a; Sales 2008; White, Matteson & Abels 2008; Pym 2009; Enríquez 2011, 2014; Massey & Ehrensberger-Dow 2011; Sales & Pinto 2011; Olalla-Soler 2018; Sales, Pinto & Fernández 2018; Gough 2019). Methodologically, these studies open up a suggestive range of possibilities, from a qualitative, a quantitative or a mixed perspective using questionnaires and interviews, focus groups and groups with experience.
At the same time, research can focus on analysing factors such as the use of sources (type and use), documentary competence in problem solving (type and mode, outcome and effectiveness), in various language combinations, or delve deeper into information needs and documentary strategies by fields of specialisation (literary, audiovisual, scientific-technical, legal translation, localisation and interpreting, both conference and dialogic, e.g. in public services).
On the other hand, there is also much to be done in the systematisation of quality electronic resources. This could be achieved through up-to-date and rigorous open access databases, which, in a growing multilingual and interdisciplinary field such as translation and interpreting studies, offer a countless number of possibilities. In Spain, the only open bibliographic database is Bibliography of Interpreting and Translation (BITRA), sponsored by the University of Alicante since 2001. In spring 2022, this database had more than 87,000 entries (books, book chapters, journal articles, theses, journals) on research directly related to translation and interpreting. It offers searchable versions in Arabic, Basque, Catalan, Chinese, Dutch, English, French, Galician, German, Italian, Japanese, Korean, Portuguese, Romanian and Spanish and is updated on a quarterly basis.
The Translation Studies Bibliography (TSB) is another annotated bibliographic database. Although it requires a subscription fee, it offers a 90-day free trial period. Created in 2004, produced by the European Society for Translation Studies (EST) and the Centre for Translation Studies (CETRA) at the University of Leuven, with the sponsorship of John Benjamins Publishers. This database has more than 30,000 entries and is updated annually.
Likewise, there are many possibilities for a succulent interdisciplinary encounter between Information Science and Translation Studies (see the open panorama outlined in Santana and Travieso, 2021, as well as the theoretical-methodological approach of the specific study they address). Among them, to name just two examples, it is worth mentioning the relevance and research potential of the visibility and recovery of sources of information such as paratexts, archives, interviews, (auto)biographies or correspondence from and between translators (Munday 2014). At the same time, from the need to vindicate the visibility of the translator, for the benefit of the social recognition of the profession, another avenue of interest consists in analysing existing resources, in which information about the translator does not always form part of the catalogue records, or does not do so in a rigorous and consistent manner, as for example in the bibliographic catalogues to which we habitually resort (Santana and Travieso 2021).