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GLG Literatura traducida do galego SPA Literatura traducida del gallego |
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Introducción | Publishing and translation of Galician literature | Cultural policies and internationalisation channels | Potencial para la investigación
The dissemination of Galician literature refers to the translations that are addressed to the international and national spaces. It follows dynamics that vary according to the target culture and the socio-political circumstances of the source literary system itself, as well as the behaviour of the global market, insofar as the selection, production, and reception of literary translations depend to a large extent on the market and publishing policies.
The fact that a literary work is translated means that its cultural identity is recognised as well as its legitimacy for cultural exchange and the transmission of ideas, aesthetics, and products. In the case of subaltern cultures, such as Galicia’s, which coexists with the hegemonic Spanish culture, the dissemination of its literature in translation is an important element in reinforcing its own culture and identity awareness.
Translation, especially into a dominant language, not only entails the projection of one's own culture but also implies an external recognition of its texts (Casanova 2002). Therefore, as well as having an impact on economic capital and access to the international literary market, the translation of Galician works into other languages leads to an accrual of symbolic capital. It increases their prestige and contributes to discovering and asserting their otherness in relation to the hegemonic culture. The dissemination of Galician works in translation favours greater international visibility, which reinforces cultural identity and opens doors to access the international literary market.
However, the projection of literature in translation does not guarantee an exchange with other literary systems nor the reception of the translated culture, or an intentional or desired perception by the source culture. This depends on factors such as the selection criteria of the works, the translation strategies, the tolerance towards mediated translations, or the market economy.
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Publishing and translation of Galician literature
Publishing in Galician
The year 1975 marks the beginning of the recovery of the contemporary Galician cultural system. The death of the dictator and the political change in Spain with the transition to democracy made possible the (new) Galician Statute of Autonomy in 1981, which recognises the co-official status that Galician, as the native language of Galicia, shares with Spanish. The entry into force of the Law of Linguistic Normalization (LNL) in 1983 provided the Galician language with a legal basis and triggered a high demand, primarily for teaching, for Galician-language texts, which the publishing sector was able to satisfy with its own creations and translations into Galician, especially of Spanish texts.
Figure 1 shows the evolution of publishing in Galician from 1975 to 2020 (figure based on data from the Spanish ISBN Agency (years 1975-1995), the Spanish Ministry of Culture (years 1982-2015), and CULTURAbase (years 2000-2020). The figure includes all text types published in Galician on paper or digitally (translations and original creations):
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The consolidation and the creations of new Galician publishing houses in these years allow a hitherto unknown recovery and flourishing of Galician literature. From the 1980s onwards and, with greater emphasis, throughout the 1990s, the number of books published in Galician increased considerably. The publishing activity in Galician intensified from the beginning of the 21st century until 2010, when publishing in Galician reached 2,544 titles per year, 2.2% of the total amount published in Spain (Ministerio de Cultura 2011: 112).
In the following years, the economic crisis of 2008 also had an impact on the book sector, leading to a marked downward trend in the total volume of annual Galician publications, which halved. After 2013, the year in which publishing in Galician hit rock bottom, the figures remain even below the level of the first years of the 21st century, representing only 1.6% of total Spanish publishing for the decade 2011-2020 (CULTURABase s. d.). This evolution, however, may also be seen in the publishing sphere of the other cultures in Spain (Comellas 2016: 134; Montero 2019: 451f.), but which has a greater impact on the volume of translations into and from Galician.
The translation of Galician literature
The reference for the following overview of translation flows is the information contained in the constantly updated Bitraga database, which records the translations published from and into Galician in book format.
In parallel to publishing, translation from Galician has increased exponentially since the approval of the LNL. However, the dissemination of Galician literature in translation has had a delayed effect and is less intense than translation into Galician, which had a flying start in the 1980s (see Fig. 3). In fact, it was not until the mid-1990s, when the Galician literary system already had a considerable and renewed volume of its own creation, that Galician literature began to gain more visibility, firstly in the Spanish publishing sphere (Luna and Galanes 2018) and later, albeit modestly, in the international sphere (Montero 2012).
Figure 2 shows the absolute number of translations of Galician works published between 1975 and 2020.
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In 2001, the number of translations increased suddenly and reached its highest point. The following years (2001-2006) record an average of about 100 new translations per year. Between 1975 and 2020, more than 2,300 translations of about 1,300 Galician works were published. Ninety-five per cent of them are literary texts with a clear preference for children's and young people's literature (CYL) into Spanish (21% of the total volume of literary translations), especially in the first decades recorded here. Translated CYL accounts for 53% on average of the total number of translations of Galician works recorded in Bitraga for the years 1975-2020. From 2007 onwards, there was a decline in translation activity from Galician, which only started to slowly pick up again in 2019. The ups and downs shown in Figure 2 may be related in part to institutional policies to promote translation and in part to the economic and political situation in Spain and Galicia in those years.
Figure 3 compares the quantitative evolution of translations from and into Galician between 1975 and 2020 and reveals the clearly unequal exchange.
In order to understand the flows of translation and dissemination of Galician literature, it is relevant to differentiate between translations into Spain’s other languages (intrastate translation) and those directed at foreign cultural communities. Intrastate translation into other subaltern languages of Spain (e.g. Asturian or Basque) implies a certain recognition of Galician culture, but these transfers do not directly contribute to its internationalisation. Translation into Castilian, into the dominant Spanish system, on the other hand, leads to a wide reception in Spain, while at the same time, due to its more advantageous position in the international literary field, it favours the visibility of the transferred work beyond the borders. These translations into Spanish also foster the reception of these works in Latin America, especially through the Latin American book fairs in which Galician publishers participate.
Often, Spanish translations, especially when published by large publishers, act as a springboard to market Galician titles outside Spain. It should be borne in mind, however, that this practice leads to a lack of immediacy that results in a neutralisation in the intrastate and international space of the cultural singularities that make up the Spanish State, as well as implying appropriation by the dominant Spanish literary field (Luna 2019: 43; Montero 2012: 61).
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In the years 1975-2020, 70% of translations of Galician literary works are produced for the Spanish market, predominantly in Spanish. Of these, only 43% account for adult literature. As for exports to foreign cultures, which account for 30% of all literary translations from Galician, the relative frequency with respect to the target age group is almost reversed: translated Galician CYL works represent only 36% of Galician works that cross borders. It should also be noted, that adult literature reaches a higher number of international spaces than translated CYL.
Since 1975, the dissemination of Galician literature in foreign languages has gained ground in absolute and, above all, relative terms: from 1975 to 1990, the percentage of literary translations (CYL and adult literature) for foreign cultures represented an average of 18% of the total volume of translations. In the years 1991 to 2005, this average rises to 25%, and for the last three five-year periods (2006-2020), interstate translations account for 39% to 43% of the total volume of texts translated into other languages.
For the years 1975-2020, literary translations into 52 cultural spaces expressed in 40 different languages are recorded. Two-thirds of the relations with interstate spaces were established from the end of the 20th century onwards (Luna & Galanes 2018: 190).
The preferred cultural space for translations has always been Spanish (with almost 1,000 publications). It is followed, with much less intensity, by the Catalan cultural space with almost 300 entries; the Basque and British cultural spaces with almost 200 entries; the Portuguese and Italian with more than 100 translations; and the French with less than a hundred translations. In the German-speaking, Russian, and Brazilian publishing markets, Galician literature has not had a particularly notable impact. In the other receiving cultures, the reception of Galician literature is often anecdotal. This includes communities with stateless or minority languages (Aranese, Asturian, Breton, Slovenian, etc.) and hegemonic languages, albeit peripheral due to their reduced participation in the world translation market (Arabic, Chinese, or Japanese); and even more occasional approaches in cases like the Kurdish, Hebrew, and Sardinian communities, among others.
Figure 4 shows the participation of the different receptor cultures that translate Galician works. Translations into Latin and Esperanto are excluded from this calculation, as well as translations promoted and offered by the Galician source system itself with the intention of making Galician literature visible in an international space since these translations are not the result of demand expressed by the target culture.
In the case of the British cultural space, the volume of translation represented is not exact, as some publishers (e.g. Small Stations Press) act in a markedly global manner.
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Of the total amount of translations for international spaces, the majority have English as their target language. This has not always been the case: the distribution of preferred target languages and cultures has changed over the decades, depending, among other reasons, on institutional and publishing promotion initiatives and translation policies. Until the end of the first decade of the 21st century, translations into Portuguese (mainly children's books) prevailed, followed by translations into English, Italian, French, and German. In the period 2011-2020, however, the majority of interstate translations were into English (more than 90 titles), mainly for the United Kingdom, but also for the United States, Canada, and Ireland, followed by Italian, Portuguese, and French (around 20 titles each), with Bulgarian, Russian and German (between 5 and 10 titles) as target languages.
It is worth noting that more than half of the almost 130 Galician titles that have received a translation grant from the Xunta de Galicia since 2010 are translations into English. Regardless of their target language, these translations form part of the Galician Government's internationalisation strategies, as they are intended to function as bridge versions for several linguistic and cultural spaces.
Texts by authors from different periods and styles have been translated, including Alfonso X the Wise (1252-1284), Rosalía de Castro (1837-1885), Manuel Curros Enríquez (1851-1908), Xosé Luís Méndez Ferrín (1938), Pilar Pallarés (1957), Chus Pato (1955), Teresa Moure (1969), and Yolanda Castaño (1977). Within the CYL, which circulates mainly in the Iberian sphere, are Agustín Fernández Paz (1947-2016), Paula Carballeira (1972), and Ledicia Costas (1979), among others. The most widely-circulated CYL works outside Galicia include Fina Casalderrey (1951) and Agustín Fernández Paz (more than a hundred translations), as well as Marisa Núñez Álvarez (more than 80), among others. However, many of these works have only been translated into the languages of Spain and, therefore, have practically no repercussion abroad. Most of the works are contemporary narrative texts for an adult audience.
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Rosalía de Castro, s. d. |
Elena Zernova, translator of Galician literature into Russian (Photo: UVigo) | Jonathan Dunne, publisher and translator of Galician literature into English |
Some Galician titles have been adapted for more than 20 cultural spaces, such as Memorias dun neno labrego (1961, Xosé Neira Vilas, 1928-2015) and O lápis do carpinteiro (1998, Manuel Rivas, 1957). Rivas's narrative, which has more than 100 translations, is the one that has aroused the greatest interest in Galician literature, first in Spain (in Spanish) and later abroad. Suso de Toro (1956), Rosalía de Castro, Xosé Neira Vilas, Carlos Casares, Álvaro Cunqueiro (1911-1981), and Domingo Villar (1971-2022) follow at a considerable distance with between 26-50 translations. However, only Neira Vilas, de Castro, and Villar have had a reception abroad that exceeds twenty translations for different spaces.
In general terms, the international dissemination of adult literature depends to a large extent on the Galician academic circuit, which in the early 2020s continued to act as a mediator and even translator: Jonathan Dunne (Eng), Kathleen March (Eng), Elena Zernova (Rus), John Rutherford (Eng), Takekazu Asaka (Jpn), Attilio Castelucci (Ita), among others. The commitment and interest of independent publishers (cf., for example, Palacios 2021) and translation subsidies from internal and external public bodies are also relevant. Commercial criteria apply in the case of works that have had some success, particularly in Spain (for example Manuel Rivas, Domingo Villar, Ledicia Costas; cf. Luna 2021).
Cultural policies and internationalisation channels
The process of dissemination of Galician literature in translation outlined above occurs at the pace of the evolution of the Galician book market, the political situation in Spain and Galicia, as well as their respective cultural policies. According to the possibilities of each moment, efforts to project Galician literature have focused on different strategies and actions.
In general terms, these strategies seek to improve the visibility of Galician culture and literature or specific authors, promoting their dissemination abroad in order to foster translation on demand and achieve a greater presence in the international publishing market. The aim is to increase the symbolic capital of the translated work and, consequently, its cultural and economic capital.
The basic strategies that complement each other and that have been implemented with varying degrees of impulse and success in the different stages are:
- To provide translations into other languages of selected works from the Galician source culture to make the literature itself visible.
- To make Galician culture and identity visible in order to generate demand within other cultures.
According to the cultural policies and the main initiatives to promote Galician literature abroad, four stages are outlined below
First stage: 1975-1983
The first stage, which began with the end of the dictatorship, encompasses the Transition, the years before Autonomy (1979-1981), and the years of the consolidation of Autonomy. In these years, cultural policies focused on establishing public institutions to watch over Galician culture (Lage, Losada, and Gómez 2012: 120) and promote it. At this time, among others, the Council for Galician Culture (CCG, 1983) was founded, whose constitution is provided for in article 32 of the Galician Statute of Autonomy.
While there was still little promotion of Galician literature abroad, the concerns focused on strengthening the literary repertoire in Galician. This was mostly due to the engagement of associations, publishers, and intellectuals. With the aim of strengthening intrastate and international reception, the Asociación de Escritores en Lingua Galega (Galician Writers Association — AELG, 1980) and the Asociación Galega de Editores (Galician Publishers Association — AGE, 1983; the Federación de Gremios de Editores de España — Spanish Association of Publishers Guilds — was founded in 1978) were established.
From 1983 onwards, Galician CYL began to slowly enter the Spanish market, when the publishers La Galera, Galaxia, and Elkar (Catalan, Galician, and Basque, respectively) resumed their co-publishing practice initiated in the 1960s (although with interruptions), in which Catalan CYL prevailed (Domínguez 2021: 207). Nevertheless, the weak structure of the Galician publishing sector would not have been able to achieve a level of economic comfort to allow them to negotiate translation rights and actively participate in the dynamics of international dissemination. This sector is mostly made up of small publishers with limited resources, with some exceptions such as the publishers specialising in literary fiction Kalandraka or OQO. The translation of Galician works abroad is occasional, and is often poetry or fragmentary narrative published in magazines. Nevertheless, the Galician intelligentsia was aware that foreign translation was a driving force, first and foremost in terms of symbolic capital, but also in economic terms, in favour of Galician cultural normalisation. Some committed literary critics, such as Xesús Alonso Montero and Basilio Losada, among others, translated Galician literary works into the language of the dominant system, Spanish.
Along the same lines, the writer Carlos Casares, president of the CCG from 1996 to 2002, urged Galician authors to systematically opt for the projection of Galician culture through self-translation into Spanish to make up for the absence of an external promotion policy (Casares 1979; Rodríguez 2016: 334).
Second stage: 1984-2005
This stage began with the recovery of cultural life in Galician, once a favourable legal framework was in place, especially since the enactment of the LNL (1983). But the focus of institutional cultural policy in Galicia at this stage was on mass consumption and tourism (Lage, Losada, and Gómez 2012: 123). The intense flow of translations that began (mainly translations into Galician) favoured the internationalisation of literary forms and contents. These were the foundational years that lasted until the 1990s, and which constituted the starting point for an exchange (albeit unequal) with other literary systems.
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| Kathleen March, 2010 (Photo: AELG Archive – Santos-Díez) |
The dynamising role of many associations as well as individuals from the Galician and international academic spheres is noteworthy. The American Hispanist Kathleen March, to give an example, founded the Galician Studies Association (from 1991, Asociación Internacional de Estudos Galegos, AIEG), in 1982, which has held triennial congresses since 1985. March also stands out for her tireless efforts to promote Galician literature in the USA with translations of classical and contemporary works and scientific contributions. The PEN Clube de Galicia (1989) also tried to overcome the invisibility of Galician literature by offering, in 1993, among other activities, English versions (although published in Galicia) of contemporary Galician prose and poetry (1993), later also a poetry anthology (2001) and a narrative anthology (2005).
In those years, internationalisation efforts were also reflected in the continuous commitment of intellectuals such as Casares, who attended conferences (Galanes 2018: 32), regularly visited international book fairs, and took part in literary festivals and meetings all over the world, which he used to contact translators and promote translation projects. Casares’ commitment, as well as that of many intellectuals of those years, has provided a solid basis for later socio-political and cultural claims focused on the projection of Galician literature and culture.
One of the internationalisation strategies of this period continues to be self-translation, or translation at the author’s own sake, into the hegemonic Spanish language in order to guarantee a broader reception. In fact, even in 2020, it is often considered essential to have a Spanish version or a translation into a central language, such as English, in order for a peripheral culture to gain access to the international translation market. However, Spanish versions come at a price: due to the lack of immediacy, the original cultural context is often rendered invisible at both the paratextual and textual levels. Paradoxically, it is above all the self-translations that are most affected, since they are considered original texts and are accepted as such in the target culture.
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| Edición italiana (1989), traducida por Giuseppe Tavani, de Xa vai o Griffon no vento. |
During these years, many translations were carried out for personal affinities or academic reasons and failed to become effective references for the international projection of Galician literature. This requires a systematic and coordinated internationalisation strategy which only began to take shape in 2006. The absence of an institutional translation policy has also had repercussions on Galician public subsidies for translation, whose calls for applications from 1987 to 2006 included both the publication of Galician books in general and the import and export through translations.
Since 1984, the Spanish State, through the Ministry of Culture, has been awarding grants for the translation and publication in foreign languages of Spanish literary works written in any of the official languages of the State. The first grant awarded to a Galician work was awarded in 1987 to translate Alfredo Conde's novel Xa vai o Griffon no vento (1984) into Italian.
In addition to these aids, subsidies for the translation into Castilian of works written in other official Spanish languages have been granted since 1986, which since 1991 have been converted into subsidies for translation between all the co-official languages. In 2012, this line of subsidies was discontinued until a new call for applications was made in 2021.
Third stage: 2005-2009
This period coincides with that of the Galician coalition government (2005-2009) between the socialists (PSdeG) and Galician nationalists (BNG), of a leftist nature, which advocates an external projection of its own culture and identity. The cultural policies of this stage are favourable to the creative sector, which has significant logistical and economic support from the Xunta (Lorenzo 2017). The public institutions are determined to consolidate the Galician cultural system and strengthen the cultural industries (Lage, Losada, and Gómez 2012: 143). A phase of explicit cooperation between the Consellería de Cultura and the professional associations of the cultural sector and the book industry began, in addition to advice and collaboration from the academic sphere. As far as Galician books are concerned, this purpose was embodied in the approval of the Galician Book and Reading Act of 2006 which provides, among other actions, support for translation. In 2007, the Galician Administration announced for the first time subsidies to exclusively finance translation from and into Galician (Verdugo 1998) to be published. In addition to this aid, institutional financial and logistical support is provided to attend the most important international book fairs (IBF) in Europe and Latin America. This reinforces the presence of different Galician book agents in important international business spaces which some Galician publishers (Galicia Nova, OQO, Kalandraka, for example) have already been attending for several years. The IBFs of Frankfurt and Bologna and LIBER have become routine events, as have those of Guadalajara, Montevideo, Buenos Aires, and Havana. The Buenos Aires IBF is particularly interesting due to the historical importance of Galician emigration in Argentina, while the Guadalajara IBF in Mexico is the most important for this Ibero-American cultural market. Galicia's presence in 2008 as the guest of honour at the IBF in Havana was an important socio-political milestone. However, it was not until 2016 that Galicia —through Santiago de Compostela, which participates as a guest city in the Buenos Aires IBF— had this opportunity again.
Other co-responsibility measures between the administration and the publishing sector for the promotion of Galician books abroad include the creation of the online portal Galician Books, the multilingual magazine Praza das Letras, the catalogues of Galician Publishers and Readgalicia.com, which included excerpts of literary works in English. With the change of government in 2009, these platforms were deactivated and several cultural projection initiatives were cancelled (Montero 2013).
Fourth stage: 2009-2020
This stage started with the return of the Partido Popular (the conservative Spanish People’s Party) to the Galician Government, the Xunta, and its ongoing tenure. The financial crisis of 2008 led to deep cuts in education and culture, which initially also affected the Xunta de Galicia's subsidies for translation from and into Galician. Especially since 2014, there has been a significant decrease in translation activity. In the field of public cultural policies, there has been a systemic change in terms of working dynamics, reducing the actions agreed with the respective sectors (theatre, music, publishing, authorship, research, trade associations, etc.).
The calls for translation grants (cancelled for 2009) are periodically reviewed in order to detail the assessment criteria, which until 2009 were very succinct. The systematisation of these calls for proposals aims to ensure that public funds are allocated objectively and in accordance with quality criteria. However, the bureaucratic effort involved is proving a difficult obstacle to overcome for constructive internationalisation in terms of sustainability and diversity.
The regional Ministry of Culture of the Xunta focuses its promotion of Galician culture and literature abroad on funding programmes for translation and book promotion:
- Annual calls for translation grants.
- Translations by supply, i.e., driven, financed and supplied by the source culture ( “driven by the source culture”, Dollerup 1997: 46): publication of the Anthology of Galician Literature 1196-1981 (2010) and 1981-2011 (2012), as well as the Galician Classics collection, inaugurated in 2011 and published in collaboration with Small Stations Press. Until 2020, five works of poetry and two narrative works from the 19th and 20th centuries have been published, who’s authors include only one women, Rosalía de Castro.
- Portico of Galician Literature website (since 2012) which displays excerpts in English of contemporary Galician literary works. This website, coordinated by translator and editor Jonathan Dunne (Small Stations Press), provides information on translation rights and translation grants from the Galician government.
- Since 2012, sponsorship of the international poetry translation workshop Con barqueira e remador, organised by Yolanda Castaño, held annually in Galicia.
- Collaboration with public entities such as the Instituto Cervantes or the Centres for Galician Studies.
- From 2019, annual grants for writers, illustrators, and translators who attend festivals and international book fairs (IBF).
- Presence at several IBFs and financial support for publishers.
These strategies for the promotion of Galician literature were also complemented by other initiatives, such as the creation of the Residencia literaria 1863, conceived by the poet Yolanda Castaño, which since 2021 hosts annually translators as well as foreign writers.
The Galician administration continues to provide publishers with a common space at the book fairs in Bologna, Frankfurt, Buenos Aires, Guadalajara, and LIBER (Madrid/Barcelona), but doing without the Cuban and Uruguayan IBFs. Their presence at the fairs is characterised by an interest in cultural promotion, while the publishers see them primarily as a business space (see, for example, the controversy between the AGE and the regional Ministry of Culture). In this respect, the fairs in Latin America are particularly important, given the large number of Galicians in the diaspora, especially in Argentina (around 175,000), Brazil (around 50,000), Cuba, Venezuela, and Uruguay (around 40,000 respectively). This divergence of interests means that more and more Galician publishers are coming to the IBF with their own stand, with the aim of internationalisation in order to export their products and cultural capital. Likewise, this sector is seeking to reformulate the projection mechanisms and systematise the efforts that foster greater visibility. The I Conferencia Internacional do Libro held in 2011 made this concern clear. The meeting, organised by the Clúster do Libro (established in 2010), focused on the internationalisation of the book industry, specifically towards Latin America and Asia.
On repeated occasions, the focus is placed on the convenience of the creation of a Central Book Trading Office, as an institution to coordinate dissemination activities for the Galician books (Bragado 2012; 2018). In addition, the meetings in which the publishing world participates, often with the support of the CCG (Encontro Festlatino 2012; As linguas e culturas peninsulares e a súa proxección internacional 2012; A internacionalización do libro galego 2018; The internationalization of Galician literature in English translation: new oportunities in a more welcoming Irish/British book market 2019) are useful to discover and point out different dissemination strategies.
Despite all the actions carried out in these decades, the lack of international visibility of Galician culture persists. This is the reason why several voices in the academic and publishing world call for reformulating the ways or rethinking the approach to the projection of Galician literature and the subsidies for publishing translations (cf. AGE, AGPTI, Castro 2021, March 2022, Montero 2013, among others).
In order to give a certain continuity to the translation of Galician literature, and also to achieve a sustainable exchange that favours a diversification of genres, authorships, themes, etc., it is necessary to strengthen new channels of dissemination. Among these would be the need to reorient the criteria for translations promoted by the Galician system in order to take into account the interests of the receptor system.
Since the end of the 20th century, several catalogues of Galician texts translated into other languages have been compiled (Casares 2003; Bitraga 2004) which have served as a starting point for valuable studies, mostly from a sociological perspective, on the relations of the Galician literary system with other cultures and literatures. There are works that focus on literary genres, authors, translators, and other intermediaries involved in the exchange circuits. Research on self-translation, publishing houses, relations between Iberian works of literature, and cultural policies, among others, has also been published. However, these analyses need to be continually updated, and other aspects and dynamics surrounding the translation of this peripheral culture need to be explored in greater depth.
In order to make progress in research into the translation of Galician literature, it would be essential to complete the register of translations by going backwards and forwards in time. This task is complicated by the difficulty of locating translations of Galician texts published abroad, as there is no register of sales of translation rights. It would also be interesting to analyse the evolution of the relationship between the market, the book industry, and cultural policies. This would include, for example, examining the actual return on promotional strategies used at book fairs.
There is still a lack of studies on absences (that which is not translated), the reception of texts in the target culture, together with the external perception of Galician culture or particular authors, especially in the context of mediated translations.
Finally, the case studies on the translating behaviour and aesthetics of a specific cultural space are enriching, in addition to the analysis of a translated authorship or work that may complement the research results already achieved.